Conjunctions as Linking Words: Types and Examples
A conjunction is a linking word: it links words, phrases, clauses, even sentences and prefixes, showing a logical relation between them.
- Lulu likes flowers, pumpkins, and butterflies.
linking a group of words
- Farley has three dogs and two cats.
linking two phrases
- Tumkin took along an umbrella because it was raining.
linking two clauses
- Maya wanted to leave, but something held her back.
linking two clauses again
- Poco wore a jacket, a raincoat, and a pair of galoshes. He even carried his umbrella. But it didn’t rain.
linking sentences
- In her paper, Anita compares pre- and post-War student movements.
linking two prefixes
Conjunctions may be coordinating or subordinating.
Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions link two grammatically balanced elements (words, phrases, clauses, sentences, prefixes, etc.).
- apples and oranges
- green apples or blue oranges
- Lulu likes green apples, but she loves blue oranges.
- Lulu likes all kinds of fruit, including green apples. But what she loves are blue oranges.
The seven coordinating conjunctions in English are and, or, but, yet, so, nor, for. Of these, the most commonly used are and, but, and or. Here are some examples that show how these conjunctions can be used to link different grammatical elements.
- Maya likes books, music, and oranges.
- Tumkin is intelligent but absent-minded.
- Did you go to Thailand or Indonesia?
- The rain came down in torrents and washed away the mountain road.
- Poco has many cars but no happiness.
- Would you rather fly without wings or read people’s minds?
- Our car broke down, and we were stuck in the middle of the forest.
- Lulu had no apples, but she had some oranges.
- Were you in Thailand, or did you go to Indonesia?
- Farley breathed out in relief: he was finally safe. And then the ground underneath exploded.
- Alarms rang and people shouted. But the ghost had already vanished. We could bake a cake from scratch. Or we could just order.
- The pro- and anti-reform parties have reached an agreement.
- Are these your short- or long-term plans?
The coordinating conjunctions yet and so are also used to connect two balanced elements.
- They were broke yet happy.
- It was pouring rain and pitch dark, yet we found our way out of the forest.
- I couldn’t wait any longer, so I sent him an email.
We often use the coordinating conjunction nor to introduce the second of two negative alternatives (neither . . . nor . . .).
- Maya eats neither caterpillars nor snails.
- Neither does Rita sew, nor does she knit.
But nor needn’t always follow neither. It can be used to simply introduce a further negative statement.
- It didn’t stop raining, nor did the waters recede. “I can’t stand the smell of roses.” “Nor can I!”
For is used as a conjunction mainly in literary texts or when you want to lend a solemn tone to a sentence. Otherwise, in modern usage, it is more often used as a preposition than a conjunction.
- Conjunction: She called him back, for she was afraid of being alone.
- Preposition: The boat for the mainland leaves at 0900 hours.
Commas with coordinating conjunctions
When a coordinating conjunction like and or but links two independent clauses, it is usually preceded by a comma. This makes it easier for the reader to note the change in clause and follow along with the text. (Remember that an independent clause is one that can stand by itself as a sentence.)
- Maya has booked a flight to Mauritius, but she hasn’t bought a return ticket.
- Poco wants to watch a play, and he also wants to go out for dinner.
The comma between independent clauses is not grammatically necessary, but it effectively demarcates the two clauses, indicating to the reader where one clause ends and the other begins. Most style manuals, including the Chicago Manual of Style, the AP Stylebook, and the APA Publication Manual, recommend using the comma to clarify meaning and improve readability, which is important in business and academic writing. In creative writing, the comma between the clauses is often omitted: the writer may not want the reader to pause between the two thoughts.
Insert a comma before not after a conjunction.
- Incorrect We tried calling you but, you were not reachable.
- Correct We tried calling you, but you were not reachable.
In general, you don’t need to use a comma when a conjunction connects words and phrases, except in a list.
- Maya has booked flights to Mauritius and Madagascar.
- Maya has booked flights to Mauritius, Madagascar, and the Maldives.
- For his birthday, Poco will buy a helicopter or a yacht.
- For his birthday, Poco will buy a helicopter, a yacht, or a sports car.
Serial comma
The serial comma is used before the conjunction in a list of three or more items. It is the comma after the second-last element in a list, usually before and or or.
- For the expedition, you will need shoes, socks, and a compass.
- Poco bought a huge mansion, a new helicopter, four gold watches, and an entire island, but he still feels something is missing.
The serial comma is more common in American than in British style, and in formal than in creative writing.
Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions link two clauses, making the meaning of one clause dependent on that of the other. (A clause of course is made up of a subject and a verb that can act as a sentence.)
- Maya likes to travel because it is more fun than sitting at home.
- When Farley sings, crows start to caw.
- Many cats like milk, although most of them are lactose intolerant.
A subordinating conjunction logically connects two clauses, of which one is subordinate in importance to the other. By using a subordinating instead of coordinating conjunction, we indicate that one clause is dependent on the other.
- Maya is happy because it is raining.
main clause = Maya is happy; subordinate clause = because it is raining
A subordinating clause needn’t always follow the main clause; it can precede it.
- Because it is raining, Maya is happy.
Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions.
- because
- since
- as
- though
- although
- even though
- once
- when
- whenever
- while
- whereas
- if
- as if
- where
- so (that)
- that
- until
- till
- unless
- before
- after
- as long as
- as much as
- as soon as
Commas with subordinating conjunctions
A comma is not generally used when the subordinate clause follows the main clause.
- Poco might get upset if you don’t finish your work.
main clause = Poco might get upset; subordinate clause = if you don’t finish your work
- Farley loses all his money whenever he gambles.
- You don’t know if you’ll succeed until you give it a try.
However, when a subordinate clause precedes the main clause, a comma can improve readability and indicate a slight pause.
- Whenever Poco sneezes, his eyes fall out.
Subordinate clause = Whenever Poco sneezes; main clause = his eyes fall out
- After you finish digging a tunnel, you can escape this dungeon.
- Since all the flights have been canceled, we’re stuck here at the airport.
Conjunctions of contrast
When conjunctions of contrast (like while, whereas, though) link two clauses, a comma can indicate a slight pause after the main clause, emphasizing the contrast.
- They went on picnic, even though it was raining.
- Farley wanted a motorcycle, whereas all he got was an old scooter.
- The truth will prevail, though we may try to quash it.
When while implies contrast, use a comma before it.
- The word to speaks of destination, while toward refers to direction.
But when while means “at the same time as” rather than “whereas,” no contrast is implied, and the comma can be omitted.
- Nothing changed while the princess slept, three peas under her bed and a curse on her head.
Similarly, use a comma before when when the word implies contrast.
- Many think that dinosaurs were reptiles, when they were in fact birds.
Again, a comma isn’t used when when doesn’t imply contrast.
- Maya is only happy when it rains.
Conjunction at start of sentence
It is fine to start a sentence with a conjunction like and or but. Use the conjunction in this position when you want to emphasize it. Note, however, that such usage lends a dramatic (and informal) tone to writing. As such, the sentence-initial conjunction is found more often in creative than in formal writing.
- After everything that had happened, we had no reason to believe him. But we still did, for what else was there to do?
- She wept and fasted. She wept and prayed. She ranted and raved. She begged and cried. And still Aunt Martha would not relent.
- You can have the lies they peddle to you, sugarcoated lies that help you sleep better at night. Or you can have the truth.
It’s also perfectly fine to start a sentence with because, both in casual and formal writing.
- Because I like cocoa, I love chocolate.
- Because it was raining, Farley’s pants were wet.
- Because Lulu likes oranges, she refuses to eat apples.
Conjunction or preposition?
A word may be a conjunction or a preposition, depending upon how it is used in a sentence. If a word like until or since links a subordinate to a main clause, it is a conjunction; if it takes a complement to then add to the meaning of a verb or describe a noun, it is a preposition.
- Conjunction: Don’t jump off the plane until I give you the signal.
links two clausesPreposition: Don’t jump off the plane until tomorrow.“Tomorrow” is the complement of the preposition “until.” Together, they form a prepositional phrase that adds to the meaning of the preceding verb phrase.
- Conjunction: Lulu has been dancing since she was nine.
Preposition: Lulu has been dancing since 2019.